(Ahlul Bayt News Agency) - This piece of writing outlines the start of contemporary political revival within the Shi’ite community dating back to the Jihad movements of the early twentieth century in Ottoman Iraq. During a time of global turmoil due to the First World War and as part of the Western escapade in colonizing the world, British forces were deployed to invade Iraq, which under the Ottoman regime had given allegiance to Germany. This brought about an unprecedented reaction from the Shi’ites under the leadership of their Jurists (Mujtahideen) which altered the course of politics in Iraq. A lot of emphasis has been given to the role played by one of the pioneers of the Jihad movement, Ayatollah Sayyid Mahdi Al-Haidari, however, there are many who took part in this movement, who unfortunately have not been given justice in this piece of writing.
A Brief Background and Early History of Shi’ism in Iraq
The Shi’ites are a sect of Muslims who believed that Imam Ali (p), cousin and son in law of the Prophet Muhammed (p), was the rightful successor after the demise of the Prophet (p). They believe that twelve infallible leaders, referred to as Imams succeed the Prophet in leadership and all are of his progeny. The last of whom is the Mahdi (p) who went into occultation in the year 879 and has not been seen since. According to Shi’ite belief, he will return at the end of time to bring justice and righteousness to the world at a time when it was filled with tyranny and oppression.
In a historical context, Iraq has much association with the Shi’ites as many historical events took place in this region. The first Shi’ite successor to the Prophet of Islam (p) and fourth Sunni Caliphate; Imam Ali (p) changed the capital city under his leadership from Madina in Hijaz to Kufa in Iraq. The main reason was due to the political tensions at the time and the pledge of allegiance from the people of Kufa towards Imam Ali (p). However, in 661, Imam Ali (p) was assassinated in Kufa and buried in nearby Najaf. In addition to this, Imam Hussain (p), the son of Ali (p); who stated his claim on the caliphate, was slaughtered with family and companions in deserts of Karbala in 680. In later Islamic history other Shi’ite Imams were also killed in Iraq, they were Imam Musa Al-Kadhim (p) and Imam Muhammed Al-Jawad (p) who are buried in Kadhimiyya; and also Imam Ali Al-Hadi (p) and Imam Hassan Al-Askari (p) who are buried in Sammara.
Over the years, these burial places of the Imams became sacred shrines to visit and pay homage. They would be visited by millions of Shi’ites and soon became centres of Shi’ite learning and research. These centres of religious studies, called Hawza, can be considered an equivalent to modern universities. These Hawza’s provided education in a variety of different subjects that were and still are necessary in order to reach the status of being a Mujtahid.
Shi’ite difficulties under Ottoman Iraq
Iraq was directly controlled by the Ottomans centralized in Istanbul for four centuries, beginning 1534 under the rule of Sultan Sulemain Al-Kanuni. There was corruption and mayhem in the province of Iraq due to the decentralized government and general irresponsibility and abuse from the Ottoman regime.
Sectarian divides between the Shi’ites and Sunnis began to show more clearly after the formation of the Shi’ite Safavid state in neighbouring Iran while the Ottomans belonged to the Sunni school.[1] Since this divide the Ottomans feared the Shi’ite sect and did not give them any positions of authority fearing Safavid influence in the state. The Ottomans feared the issue to the extent that they banned marriages between Ottomans and Iranians, and would punish any cleric who wedded individuals of these backgrounds.
This later become part of Ottoman constitution and read as follows:It is completely impermissible to marry those who belong to Iranian descent with those of descent from the Great Ottoman Empire. [2]
As a result, most the Shi’ites of Iraq tried to prove their own identity and Islamic background under the Shi’ite school of thought without falling slave to sectarianism, nationalism and allegiances to foreigners. They did not operate in line with state policy and this weakened Ottoman dominance over the Shi’ites.
Although there was a continued conflict between the Ottomans and Iranians, the Shi’ites of Iraq felt that such a war was unrelated to religion and tried not to partake in these activities.
However, this sectarianism towards the Shi’ite community from the Ottoman Empire had different effects. Apart from the general oppression against the Shi’ites, there was also social alienation and economic tribulations. Some of these activities against the Shi’ites of Iraq included; distancing them from any high or middle class jobs in local and central government. This type of handling of the Shi’ites on behalf of the Ottomans continued without end. The Ottomans however failed to abolish the Shi’ite clerical courts, in an attempt to transfer these dealings to an official government court. They also failed to close down the Shi’ite religious schools in the holy cities such as Najaf, Karbala, and Kadhimiyya. In other developments the Ottomans were able to reject the Shi’ites from entering into military schools and were also able to reject Shi’ite students from partaking in academic scholarships abroad. [3]
Kamil Al-Chadirchi, a prominent Iraqi Sunni politician during the first half of the twentieth century; mentioned in his memoirs on the Shi’ites of Iraq:It was of the Ottoman policy to forbid giving government posts to the Shi’ite sect, especially the contentious posts. It was also part of the policy to avoid allowing Shi’ites to reach high rankings in the military. The state also made obstacles for Shi’ite students to enter government schools. Generally, the Shi’ites were denied the opportunity to progress. [4]
The economic situation for the Shi’ites in Iraq was no different than their social problems. The Ottoman Empire distributed the lands suitable for farming and other benefits to Sunni tribes and in southern Iraq kept the lease for these properties to the government and did not allow the Shi’ite farmers to buy these lands. [5]
Safeguarding the Islamic Ummah & Identity
By 1908 the Ottoman Empire increasingly realised the threat it was under from Western invasion. It had lost several territories and neighbouring Iran also had threat of invasion from the Russians. With the ongoing problem the Ottomans emphasized the need for Muslim unity with repeated appeals to the masses on this issue.
However, in dealing with the Shi’ites, they had a somewhat complacent policy. They needed the assistance of the Mujtahideen in mobilizing the Shi’ites but at the same time feared giving them too much freedom to propagate Shi’ism to the Arab tribes. In an attempt to gain support the Ottomans started giving out literature at Shi’ite shrines regarding concessions and unity.
While the Shi’ites accepted unity, their religious propagation was scoring increased results and many were converting to Shi’ism. This led the Ottoman Empire to tackle this growing problem by introducing secular Shi’ite schools of education, while imposing restrictions on the traditional Madressa and on Iranian pilgrimages to the holy shrines.
Although the Shi’ites were treated as second class citizens and as a threat, nevertheless, the Mujtahideen emphasized the need to safeguard the Islamic nation and preached unity amongst Muslims. They engaged in dialogue with Sunni clerics and allowed for joint seminars and conferences to discuss Muslim problems in the wake of colonialism. [6]
It is necessary to note here that the majority of Shi’ite Mujtahideen believed in Muslim unity as a source of power to defend the Muslim land against aggression, and had preached this for many years before the Ottoman Empire’s intention to preach such propaganda for their interest.
British Invasion and Shi’ite Reaction
By November 1911, both Russian and British troops invaded and occupied parts of northern and southern Iran. The Mujtahideen of the Shi’ites, both in Iraq and Iran reacted to this transgression by calling for a defence of Muslim land. Of the prominent Mujtahideen was Ayatollah Kadhim Al-Yazdi from Najaf, who issued a fatwa calling on Muslims to sacrifice their lives in order to fight the Italian forces in Tripoli and, Russian and British forces in Iran.
These calls from the Mujtahideen were received by the Shi’ite masses which quickly started to mobilize for Jihad. With word spreading that one of the esteemed clerics, Ayatollah Muhammed Kadhim Khorasani was to lead the warriors to Iran, many were recruited and tribal leaders contributed arms. All the necessary arrangements were made, however the unexpected death of Ayatollah Khorasani on the eve of departure dampened the morale and the expedition was cancelled. [7]
With the onset of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire decided it was in their best interests to side with the Germans against Britain and France. However, as the war began and the Germans were unable to contain the British and French, a large threat became apparent to the Ottomans. Indeed, on 6th November 1914, the first British units were deployed to southern Iraq and by the 23rd November the port city of Basra was occupied. [8]
When Basra was invaded, letters of plea were sent to the Mujtahideen of different regions requesting an immediate response and aid to the people of Basra who were under threat. Below is a segment of a letter sent to the holy city of Kadhimiyya on behalf of dignitaries from Basra:Basra has fallen, and the infidels surround us, they are all armed. We fear for the remainder of the Islamic land. We request your help in mobilizing the tribes for our defense. [9]
The reality of the threat on the Muslims in Iraq became ever more apparent and this in turn prompted a strong response from the Mujtahideen from different regions beginning with the holy city of Kadhimiyya and then other major Shi’ite cities including Najaf, Karbala and Sammara.
The Calls for the Jihad Movement
When news of Basra reached the prominent Mujtahideen of Kadhimiyya, Ayatollah Sayyid Mahdi Al-Haidari and Ayatollah Sheikh Mahdi Al-Khalisi, responded to this plea with immediate effect. In a famous and unprecedented call, Ayatollah Al-Haidari stood in the courtyards of the shrine in Kadhimiyya addressing the masses, who were waiting in suspense, with his legendary words; “Al-Jihad Al-Jihad”; which was received with a surge of chants and salutations from those present. In an atmosphere filled with anticipation, the Ayatollah declared his fatwa of Jihad to the masses announcing the obligation of defending the land of Islam, and to fight the invading transgressors. [10] He gathered the masses on numerous occasions in the courtyard of the shrine in Kadhimiyya and re-emphasised his fatwa, answering questions and warning the people of the dangers that were to come. On one of the notable occasions, he announced to the masses of Kadhimiyya, that he, his sons, his family and companions were to leave the city and head towards the frontlines of battle, saying:He who wants to join me is victorious, and he who remains here is verily at loss. [11]
He then quoted the Qur’an:Not equal are those believers who sit (at home) and receive no hurt, and those who strive and fight in the cause of Allah with their goods and their persons. Allah hath granted a grade higher to those who strive and fight with their goods and persons than to those who sit (at home). Unto all (in Faith) Hath Allah promised good: But those who strive and fight Hath He distinguished above those who sit (at home) by a special reward; [Chapter: Al-Nisa Verse: 95]
The masses responded to his call and pledged to join his men in taking to the frontlines. The Ayatollah then sent a letter to the Mujtahideen of the holy city of Najaf, Karbala and Sammara; declaring the need for Jihad against the transgressors at all costs. [12]
The news that the Ayatollah, who was more than 80 years of age and frail; was to go to the frontline had remarkable affects on the Shi’ites, as it lifted their morale and prepared them for war.
On the eve of the expedition to the frontlines, renowned clerics from the holy city of Najaf arrived to Kadhimiyya including Hujjat Al-Islam Sheikh Al-Shari’ah Al-Esfahani, Sayyid Mustafa Al-Kashani, and Sayyid Ali Al-Damaad. The Ayatollah requested the masses to receive them warmly and behind closed doors they negotiated the current state of affairs. On this night, many other people came walking from surrounding regions to the holy city of Kadhimiyya in hope of joining the expedition. [13]
When the news of the announcement from Kadhimiyya reached one of the prominent Mujtahideen of Sammara, Ayatollah Mirza Muhammed Taqi Al-Shirazi sent his eldest son Sheikh Muhammed Redha Al-Shirazi and requested him to join under the leadership of Ayatollah Al-Haidari. Ayatollah Al-Shirazi then sent out numerous letters to different regions of Iraq announcing the obligation to join the Jihad expedition alongside the Mujtahideen and the obligation to defend Islam. He was unable to join the expeditions himself due to bad health. [14]
The expedition of Kadhimiyya, under the leadership of Ayatollah Al-Haidari and Ayatollah Al-Khalisi left Kadhimiyya on the 12th Muharram 1333 which coincides with the 30th November 1914. [15]
When the news of Basra and the reaction from Kadhimiyya reached the holy city of Najaf, Ayatollah Sayyid Kadhim Al-Yazdi, likewise announced the obligation of Jihad and sent his son Sayyid Muhammed Al-Yazdi to the frontlines. In addition, the renowned Sayyid Muhammed Saeed Al-Haboobi took a dominant role in preparing the masses of Najaf for the frontlines. Many well known clerics joined Sayyid Al-Haboobi in this campaign including Ayatollah Mohsin Al-Hakim (who was then in his youth), Sheikh Muhammed Redha Al-Shabibi, Sheikh Muhammed Baqir Al-Shabibi, and Sheikh Ali Al-Sharqi.
They departed the holy city of Najaf under the leadership of Sayyid Muhammed Saeed Al-Haboobi on the 5th December 1914 for the frontlines in Basra. [16]
The Expeditions of the Shi’ites for Jihad
The expedition from Kadhimiyya took route by river towards the town of ‘Amarah in Southern Iraq. On the way, Ayatollah Al-Haidari ordered the expedition to stop at different towns and villages in order to speak to the locals regarding the need for resistance and rally support. In one of such stops, the Ayatollah’s son, Sayyid Ahmad Al-Haidari spoke on behalf of his father in parts saying:All praise be to Allah who made Jihad one of the doors for His Paradise and of the keys for His mercy; and may the blessings be upon the Prophet (p) and his Progeny (p) who were sent to us a mercy to mankind and a punishment to the infidels. Allah has made
